A literature review 'what are the concepts behind sustainable housing Essay

A literature review 'what are the concepts behind sustainable housing development' - Essay Example The term ‘sustainable development’ is perhaps one of the most important terms in the context of global society. World Commission on Environment and Development defined ‘sustainable development’ as â€Å"development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs† (Munier, 2005). Often people think that ‘sustainable development’ is synonymous with ‘economic development’. However the concept of sustainable development is applied to every area. Fundamentally there are three major areas that are addressed by sustainable development. These are In the present era when activities are more involved in destructions rather than constructions, it is very important to have sustainable development in both economic and social sectors. Housing development is basically a part of both social as well as economic development of the region. As a result sustainable housing development has to be considered crucial if the objectives regarding sustainable economic and social development are needed to be achieved. Housing can be seen as a basic human need and it is one of the major issues in the everyday life of people. In 1948, United Nations stated that â€Å"everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Bakar, A. H. et al, n.d.). Housing initiatives have to be socially acceptable, economically viable, environmentally compatible and technically feasible in order to achieve sustainability. Sustainable housing has been defined in several different ways by different experts and organizations. The European Union provided a definition from three different perspectives – economy and society (e.g. psychological impacts and affordability), construction (e.g. construction quality) and

The woman in white Essay Example for Free

The woman in white Essay Identity can be defined as the condition or character a person or thing. Behaviour can be manipulated to mask identity so that people appear to have characteristics and conditions which in reality they do not possess. In this essay, I will present a comparative analysis of two extracts in which the characters have modified their behaviour so that they portray a false identity of themselves. The two characters that I will compare are Sir Percival Glyde from The Woman in White, and Murial from The Lady in the Lake. The selected extract from The Woman in White is the scenario in which Sir PercivalGlyde is attempting to convince Marian and Mr Gilmore of his innocence. In this scene, Laura has received Anne Catherick’s letter warning her against marrying Sir Percival. Collins portrays Sir Percival as a well-mannered Baronet who wants to avoid misfortune and embarrassment on others; ‘may I beg that you will write at once†¦ ’. Sir Percival’s use of the auxiliary verb ‘may’ here makes him appear to be considerate and submissive. The verb choice of ‘beg’ makes him seem as though he is at the mercy of Marian. He depicts a gentlemanly manner, which to some extent successfully cloaks his true motives and identity. In this extract of The Woman In White, Mr Gilmore – the family esquire – is narrating.Thus providing an objective outlook of the events taking place. Mr Gilmore is emotionally and personally involved in the situation as he cares for Miss Fairlie as he has known her from childhood. Even so he the attempts to keep his professional opinion objective and irrelevates his own emotional opinion, observes and deduces a judgement from the facts presented in front of him as he narrates ‘my function was of the purely judicial kind. I was to weigh the explanation we had just heard†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ to which he comes to a fair and unbiased verdict ‘that his explanation was, to my mind, unquestionably a satisfactory one.’ However we still question the reliability of Sir Percival’s explanation due to the fact that even though Mr Gilmore has told us that objectively he has concluded that Sir Percival’s explanation is ‘unquestionably’ satisfactory he contradicts himself by stating that he could also ‘set up a case against Sir Percival Glyde’. This instantly sparks hesitation in the reader to trust Sir Percival Glyde even though accordingly we have no reason to. The reader chooses to take in to account Mr Gilmore’s biased view rather than his professional conclusion which in consequence results in suspicion – that Sir Percival’s personality, his perceived identity is, to some degree falsified. However even though we questions Sir Percival’s identity and his involvement with Anne Catherick, we nor Mr Gilmore or Marian question his motives on marrying Laura. In the second extract The lady in the lake is where we are introduced to Mrs. Fallbrook. In this extract, Marlow visits ChrisLavery’s house to investigate the circumstances surrounding Lavery’s previous encounter with Krystal this is not how you spell her name? Kingsley. Here he meetsMurial for the first time as Mrs Fallbrook, and when her identity is questions she instantly replies Why, certainly. I’m Mrs Fallbrook. Who did you think I was?’. The declarative statement followed by the interrogative challenges the detective to question her identity. Her use of the word ‘why’ before she has even introduced herself shows unnecessary protestation as though she feels she is being accused of being someone else, which in reality she is. ‘Why’ here also hints at confusion and misunderstanding while the adverb ‘certainly’ shows her certainty and confidence. Chandler confuses the reader at once with the personality of Mrs. Fallbrook. ‘Who do you think I was?’. The interrogative is used in a demanding manner, as though she is leaving Furthermore, the demanding tone of the interrogative leaves the reader leaves the reader questioning why she felt the need to ask it, and whether she is assuming someone else’s identity. leaves no room for doubt or opposition, and this in turn leaves us wondering who she really is. It also implies that she is eager to know who he thought she was and why. A question she would have otherwise not asked if she was not assuming someone else’s identity. The narrative perspective of the novel aids in masking Muriel’s true identity in this extract. Chandler has opted to use the first person narrative, which limits the point of view to that of the detective Marlow such as when he interrogates Mrs Fallbrook ‘But you didn’t shoot him, did you – on account of he owed you three months’ rent?’. He is completely oblivious to the fact that Mrs Fallbrook is not whom she claims to be and the persona of Mrs Fallbrook is a disguise to hide behind while concealing her own identity. This adds to the mystery of the novel as the reader is also as naà ¯ve tothe true identity of the woman in the apartment as Detective Marlow, leading to usquestioning her identity although we do question her motives for being in Lavery’shome where it should have been in reverse. The language used in the two texts differ, which reflect the time period that the extracts are written in and whom they were intened for. On one hand you have The Woman In White. In this the language is sophisticated. Many intended statements are enquiries. For example ‘can there be better testimony in his favour†¦ than that of the woman’s mother?’ Implying that such a high ranking man such as Sir Percival was being dishonest was at the time being rude was inconceivable and to avoid this statements are asked as questions to hide that fact that it is exactly what the person is thinking, whereas questioning suggests innocent naivety, as people of such rank were always polite and would not speak out of term. Also it is more descriptive. This is because in the Victorian era, reading was one of the few ways people could spend their leisure time, especially the rich as they did not have the same technologicaladvancments as in The lady In The Lake. The Woman In White was written in 1859, this was before technology had advanced and apart from playing games such as chess and draughts the older and more sophisticated generation has nothing else to do but read. It also suited the upper class rich to be the ideal audience for The Woman In White as they were amongst the few people in society who were educated and could read. So the language used is tailored around the intended audience and has Collin considered the length and amount of description in the novel. On the other hand we the lady in the lake where almost none of the characters speak in a well-mannered tone. Marlow for instance is very blunt and to the point majority of the time and shows no interest in showing respect for anyone as it is not relevant to his job, and is sadistically sarcastic. For example when talking to Mrs Fallbrook he does not pretend nor hide the fact that he thinks she’s lying ‘let’s not kid around anymore†¦ not that I don’t love it†¦ you didn’t shoot him, did you†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ here the interrogative ‘you didn’t shoot him, did you†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ is implied more as a declarative that he is awaiting confirmation for and so is instantly accusing her of murder. Also he seems to be patronising her ‘let’s not kid around anymore†¦ not that I don’t love it†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ which can be considered as rude. The Lady In The Lake is considerably more fast paced and seems to lack the large quantities of description in comparison to The Woman In White. Where The Woman In White has many paragraphs dedicated to description, where The Lady In The Lake make up for in dialogue, to a point where the ever little e description of the setting is given it is given thought dialogue, for example were Mrs Fallbrook describes the rung and the grey chenille carpeting on the stairs. Because of the lack of description and the much use of dialogue the story is much faster paced. Chandler is very concise and has to be as much as possible as the novel, written in 1943 it has to compete with other means of leisure such a movies which as a much more popular choice amongst the general public to whom the novel is also targeted at. In conclusion in both extracts perceiving someone is who they claim to be is mistake for which they pay dearly later on in the novels. In the woman in white true identityassumed because of honour and rank and in the lady in the lake it is because of naivety to the full situation not having reasons to suspect otherwise. View as multi-pages

Point of View in Shirley Jacksons The Lottery Essay -- Shirley Jackso

Point of View in The Lottery Shirley Jackson's "The Lottery" uses the third-person dramatic point of view to tell a story about an un-named village that celebrates a wicked, annual event. The narrator in the story gives many small details of the lottery taking place, but leaves the most crucial and chilling detail until the end: the winner of the lottery is stoned to death by the other villagers. The use of the third-person point of view, with just a few cases of third-person omniscient thrown in, is an effective way of telling this ironic tale, both because the narrator's reporter-like blandness parallels the villagers' apparent apathy to the lottery, and because it helps build to the surprise ending by giving away bits of information to the reader through the actions and discussions of the villagers without giving away the final twist. "The Lottery" is primarily told in the third-person dramatic point of view, but on occasion the narrator becomes omniscient to divulge information to the reader that which is commonly known to the villagers. In paragraph 7, for example, the ...

I Was Mugged Essays -- Personal Narrative, essay about myself

I was mugged tonight. It was about 11pm, and I was walking home from the gym, and for some reason I decided to the Other Route. I walked down Valencia to 15th instead of 14th, and headed down the block that's supposed to be one of the worst in the city, along the side of the Valencia Street Projects. It was a beautiful, warm night, and tons of people were hanging out outside. It looked like a few drug deals were being had, but usually no one hassles me. I was wearing my torn up jeans jacket that I bought 13 years ago in high school, my jogging shorts and old Nikes, and my hair was all messy. How the hell could I have looked like a person with money? I was walking down this one particular block, thinking to myself, "wow, racism is bad." And then I thought about how this block was one of the first things that people warned me about when I moved into my hood, and how mad at me my ex-boyfriend John would be if he knew I was walking down that street, and how my parents would be pissed, and how really, logically speaking, it was a pretty stupid thing to do. But I made eye contact with one dude who was pretty cute and he smiled at me and I smiled at him and I kept walking, thinking, "well, there are some cute people in the projects." I wa... ...ds them. "You pathetic losers! You got my money, but you don't have my pride." (Sure it is a clichà ©, but hell, give me some credit, I did just get mugged!) "You two are the losers for doing that!" Why bother filing a report? These skinny kids have enough problems without having the cops go in there and remind them how desperate and lacking in dignity they are. In the war between good and evil, it is not always who walks away with the goods, but the who deserved them in the first place, and how they were attained. So I trotted home to write this up. Thirty bucks for a story to tell. Not a bad deal, really.

Panic Attacks Essay

Beryl’s father had died 5 years ago and her mother had recently been diagnosed with having dementia. Beryl was seeing her GP on a regular basis, seeking re-assurance with chest pains. She had undergone a number of medical tests and her physical health was good for her age. The Assessment Beryl reported that she first experienced panic attacks as a teenager, and could remember difficult arguments with her father. Her GP prescribed medication for anxiety and panic attacks when she was in her early twenties, during a stressful time in her work environment, being married with 2 small children and running a home. The work situation was not resolved and Beryl was eventually made redundant. She remained at home, looking after the children and her husband. Beryl’s father died when she in her thirties, which left Beryl feeling responsible for her mother, who could not adjust to losing her husband. The Approach Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) was selected because it can teach the client how to replace negative thinking with positive thinking and uses cognitive exercises to dispel irrational beliefs. In the initial assessment, there was clear evidence that Beryl wanted to make a change and she was keen to engage in homework tasks. She was able to focus on the relevant issues for therapy and her treatment goals were discussed and agreed. At times of increased stress for Beryl, a vicious cycle was activated, involving fear, physical symptoms, catastrophic interpretations of bodily sensations, and safety behaviours. Treatment work addressed the panic attacks which, in turn, led to a shift with the agoraphobic symptoms. The validity of Beryl’s catastrophic interpretations was tested out through discussion and ehavioural experiments. Alternative non-catastrophic thinking was introduced and safety behaviours were identified and decreased. Throughout therapy, Beryl was encouraged to keep a diary to identify her unhelpful thinking which led to her negative feelings and behaviour. She was also encouraged to talk about her fears which enabled Beryl to see that they were unfounded. C onclusion Due to Beryl’s high level of motivation, therapy progressed well and only 8 sessions of REBT were appropriate to bring about lasting change.

The Role of the ICJ Essay Example

The Role of the ICJ Essay Example The Role of the ICJ Essay The Role of the ICJ Essay The International Court of Justice (also known as the World Court or ICJ) is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it by member states and to give advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international organs, agencies and the UN General Assembly. The ICJ acquires its authority thorough the Article 92, which is part of the UN Charter. This states in accordance with the annexed Statute, which is based upon the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice and forms an integral part of the present Charter. Article 92 UN Charter) This enables the ICJ to function at a level of acceptance and allows equality and justice to flow freely. Although the central court is in Hague (Holland), councils can be held elsewhere, whenever it is deemed acceptable. The ICJ holds the ability to pass judgment on disputes between states and attempt to ratify them. It is open to all states that are in accord with the statute and all those who are in agreement of the conditions that are laid down. Due to the ICJ having nominal enforcement powers, Article 94 of the Charter states that each party of the UN must comply with the decision of the ourt in any case to which it is a party. There are also further provision which include: If any party to a case fails to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgement rendered by the court, the other party may have recourse to the Security Council, which may, if it deem necessary, make recommendations or decide upon measures to be taken to give effect to the judgment. (Article 94 UN Charter). The court is then authorized by other documents Article 65 of the Statute which addresses any legal queries that may be made in accordance with the UN Charter in regards to making a legal request. Another document Article 96 of the Charter provides that opinions may be requested by the General or other members of the UN such as specialized agencies. Because of the ICJs limited powers it holds more of an advisory role. This then causes a stringent need to follow the charter and keep actions short in order to resolve a larger amount of cases before they failure to do so. This would then result in shortcomings and thus create turmoil in regards to its effectiveness in maintaining its goal of World peace. The ICJ was founded in 1946 and since then they have dealt with 41 controversial cases between various states delivering 21 advisory opinions. It has many failures and successes, with an astonishingly high degree of compliance in regards to the verdict that the ICJ makes. There are only two known cases where the states did not comply with the ICJs judgment. These cases were the Corfu Channel Case and the US-Nicaragua. One possible reason for this was the fact that the ICJs compliance is on voluntary basis and therefore States can not seek the ICJs verdict without first accepting the courts verdict beforehand. One example of a successful case was the intervention of the ICJ on the fishing rights in the Fisheries case (1951). The ICJ settled a verdict in favor of Norway as the dispute between them and the United States as there were British fishing vessels within Norwegian waters. Another successful ICJ case was the North Sea Continental Shelf cases (1969). This case involved Denmark, Netherlands and West Germany. This was a successful settlement and was crucial as it open up the facility of oil and gas in the North Sea. More recently the ICJ resolved a boarder clash between Burkina Faso and Mali. (1986). This Frontier Dispute case was ruled in Belgiums favor as the two separate pieces of land that were disturbed by Belgium and Holland where in fact part of Belgium. On the other hand the ICJ is renowned for its failures as well as its successes. These include the inability to resolve inner-state disputes and to date more than 40 unresolved cases have been submitted to the ICJ. Some of the cases have involved parties fulfilling illegal duties and have not accepted the jurisdiction of the court. An example of this is in Israel, Us and the UK (1955) as they all bought down and Israeli civilian aircraft over their territory. Bulgaria rejected ICJ jurisdiction and therefore the ICJ had to let the case go as too much time was already wasted. Another example of the ineffectiveness of the ICJ was in 1960 where Ethiopia and Liberia brought forward a case claiming that South Africa was violating the human rights of the natives that resided in Namibia. After a long period of time and through a tedious process the ICJ finally gave their verdict. They were in favor of the case and ruled it as illegal and thus claimed procedural point. Another limit in effectiveness was the case of the Ruling on the Israeli Security Barrier (Wall) (July 9, 2004). This barrier caused a separation between the West Bank (Judea and Samaria) and the areas inside Israel. The ICJ failed to take down the wall as they felt that it was not violating the principals of international law and as a result the Israeli High Court stated against the ICJ and ruled that specific portions of the barrier had to be moved in order to spare Palestinian Arab residents inordinate suffering. (Israeli High Court). All the above ineffectiveness reflects the initiations of the ICJ in regards to the settlement of various disputes. The actual limited effectiveness cannot be placed upon the court itself as the ICJs objective position has enabled to be as fair as possible. For example: No two ICJ judges may be of the same nationality, but due to human prejudices not all discriminative happenings can be eradicated. In addition another major issue is the fact that more powerful states and their issues with security and peace have rarely been addressed as they are rarely submitted. This is because most governments tend to consider the recognition of the jurisdiction of the court as infringing on their sovereignty. Furthermore the ICJ has often been criticized by the extensive time consumption with nominal results as it may take several years for a case to be heard and acted upon or even reach a final judgment. Hence it is very time consuming to go through the ICJ and often considered a waste of resources and lack of efficiency. Although it cannot be wholly blamed as varied parties involved in the claims often request more time for preparation of their cases. Since it is usually voluntary it really cannot be expected to resolve all cases and definitely not be held accountable for legal actions that follow after it has been settled. Despite the fact that the ICJ has had many failures and successes it still remains a positive diplomat for international law and also a dissemination of the principals of sovereignty, non-conquest, human rights and the rights of existence, self-defense in regards to the state. In addition the ICJ has helped determine certain disputes and difficulties experienced by various states. Most importantly the ICJ provides an alternative for states to reconcile disputes through the use of third party intervention and thus results in more equality as strive for world peace.

Anna Pavlova Quotes on Happiness, Success,Dance, Life

Anna Pavlova Quotes on Happiness, Success,Dance, Life Anna Pavlova was trained in classic ballet, and while she helped transform the classical ballet by her lighter, more natural style, she did not go outside the classic forms as did her contemporary, Isadore Duncan. Anna Pavlova is especially remembered for her portrayal of a swan in The Dying Swan and Swan Lake. Selected Anna Pavlova Quotations The right to happiness is fundamental. When a small child, I thought that success spelled happiness. I was wrong, happiness is like a butterfly which appears and delights us for one brief moment, but soon flits away. To follow without halt, one aim; there is the secret of success. And success? What is it? I do not find it in the applause of the theater. It lies rather in the satisfaction of accomplishment. What exactly is success? For me it is to be found not in applause, but in the satisfaction of feeling that one is realizing ones ideal. Master technique and then forget about it and be natural. As is the case in all branches of art, success depends in a very large measure upon individual initiative and exertion, and cannot be achieved except by dint of hard work. No one can arrive from being talented alone, work transforms talent into genius. God gives talent. Work transforms talent into genius. Although one may fail to find happiness in theatrical life, one never wishes to give it up after having once tasted its fruits. [Last words of Anna Pavlova] Get my swan costume ready. Then Play that last measure softly. More About Anna Pavlova Anna Pavlova BiographyBiographies: Women in Dance About These Quotes Quote collection assembled by Jone Johnson Lewis. Each quotation page in this collection and the entire collection  © Jone Johnson Lewis. This is an informal collection assembled over many years. I regret that I am not be able to provide the original source if it is not listed with the quote.

The Osprey

The Osprey Most of you know that I live on the banks of a huge lake. With about four hundred feet of frontage on a cove, I am lucky to experience all sorts of wildlife. In the morning, birds sing, dance, dip and dive, happy at being awake. Ducks, coots, and geese paddle in the water then wander up to my bird feeder, scavenging for kicked-out seed. In the evening, deer peer out of the woods, nibbling corn my husband tosses out. He laughs about putting their carcasses in our freezer for dinner, but I know he enjoys watching them come and go, feeling safe. Today, however, I watched an osprey land on a branch thirty feet off the ground, right outside my study window. Ospreys love Lake Murray for its ample bass population,and the residents love watching these gorgeous birds of prey fly, dive and strategically snare a fish from the water. This one sat for a long time, allowing me to pull out my binoculars. White head and chest. Yellow eyes, curved beak, he watched the water like the hawk he was. The breeze ruffled across his back and rear feathers, and he adjusted his balance a couple of times. But he never took his eye off the water. Ducks swam off to the side. Turtles plopped off logs off to the side as if understanding this bird meant business. Finally he dove, smacking the water with talons, then flew away, his dinner unable to even flop it was so evenly gripped. Ive seen these birds come up empty. Ive seen them attempt three and four times before successfully snaring their food. They never get frustrated. They dont let other animals bother them. The wind can blow one way then another. Regardless, they focus on their mission, and dont leave until theyve won. Osprey are beautiful creatures, living life their way. They dont care who sees them miss. They dont stop until they succeed. And in between their fishing duties, they soar, watching, learning, and enjoying the journey. Try being an osprey.

Should we place condom machines on campus in the resident halls Essay

Should we place condom machines on campus in the resident halls - Essay Example College should be just as life is i.e. a matter of survival of the fittest. The best students will rise above the temptation to go out and party on Saturday night where there is an exam on Monday morning. The ones who do not and fall to the temptations that life has to offer will suffer accordingly. It is a simple matter to consider college to be a test for real life and putting condom machines in the residence hall may only serve as a part of the test. Of course, there is also a positive side to placing condoms in residence halls. The likelihood of students falling behind in class due to being absent as they treat any STDs or unwanted pregnancies is certainly reduced. Easy access to condoms would mean that prevention from such accidents could be provided to the individuals who engage in risky behavior. Thus, not only would the temptation be there for students to have sex and skip class and thus weed out those students who would rather not be at class, the issue of students missing class due to their sex life would also be largely eliminated. Undoubtedly, the moral brigade and religious fanatics might be up in arms about providing easy access to condoms for students. They may even suggest the course of advising students to ‘abstain’ and try to show that abstinence is the right way to go to prevent any problems but the reality of the matter is quite different. No matter what is said and done, students are going to have sex in college much as they have had sex since the first universities were formed. To try and prevent this simply by giving them lectures on abstinence or by removing their access to condoms is a fantastical idea. What can be done should be done and in this case, it simply becomes a matter of commonsense to encourage students to use condoms. It must be remembered that students are not being encourage to make their dorm rooms a scene from a Roman orgy but only to practice safe sex if and when they have it. To take away

Figurative Language versus Literal Language Essay - 22

Figurative Language versus Literal Language - Essay Example According to the paper examples of idioms are â€Å"it is raining cats and dogs† meaning heavy rain, and â€Å"he is on the wagon† meaning that the person is not partaking of alcoholic drinks. This kind of language should be used with care when addressing non-native speakers of English. An analogy is a comparison of one idea with another. It usually finds a simple idea and uses it to explain the meaning of a more complex idea. An example of an analogy is the statement that â€Å"punctuation marks are the traffic signals of language†. By likening commas and full stops to traffic signs, the writer illuminates the concept of writing in terms of an extended comparison with driving along a street. A metaphor also compares two things or ideas, but it does so in such a way that they are merged into the one concept. An example is seen in the phrase â€Å"he is a pig†. If this phrase refers to the farmyard animal then it is a literal statement. If it refers to a hu man being then it is a rather insulting metaphor which suggests the person has bad manners and is greedy or self-indulgent in other ways. From this study, it is clear that a simile is another way of comparing one thing with another in a piece of writing. It is not the same as a metaphor because in the case of a simile the two ideas are compared using the words â€Å"like† or â€Å"as.† An example of a simile can be found in the nursery rhyme phrase: â€Å"its fleece was white as snow.† The comparison of a sheep’s coat with snow emphasizes how pure and white it is and makes for a much more interesting description than just a statement of the white color on its own. The term clichà © is borrowed from the French. It refers to a phrase which may have originally been quite memorable, but which has been overused to the point where it has become almost meaningless.

Using the Westlaw service and the Keysite feature to complee this Research Paper

Using the Westlaw service and the Keysite feature to complee this project - Research Paper Example 08-55671, 08-55708)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This is a case where an African-American petitioner sought writ of habeaus corpus after being convicted of first degree murder, second degree robbery, and kidnapping for robbery. The conviction also includes affirmance of his sentence to life coupled with a year in prison without parole. Nonetheless, this case though not yet overruled has received some negative treatment from the following case: In this case, some white police officers who were being rehired as entry-level officers after their resignation, brought suit alleging that the city had violated Title VII and Equal Protection Clause when they were denied credit for their earlier years of services. The credit was granted to African-American officer who were also in the process of being rehired. Despite the court ruling that Fair Pay Act applied retroactively on officers’ claims, paycheck accrual rule applied to officers’ 1983 claims, and that res judicata barred offices’ pay discrimination claims, the case has received negative treatment without being overruled from: In this case, a former employee of Home Depot, Ames brought action against former employer with allegations that the termination received violated the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) as well as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Amazingly, the United States District Court for the Illinois Northern District, granted summary judgment that was in favor of employer on all the counts brought forth by the employee. After employee’s appealed, the Courts of Appeal held that the employee’s alcohol abuse was not serious health condition to command for protection under the FMLA and ADA, the termination was not retaliation for requesting for FMLA leave as the plaintiff alleged, and that the employee did not have any disability. Valentino, a municipal employee alleged that the mayor had terminated her against the provisions of  § 1983. Her claim was that the

Lipids Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Lipids - Essay Example There are 3 subtypes of PPARs which bind to the promoter region of genes and induce fat metabolism. PPARs are located in the liver, heart and kidneys. Non-nuclear receptors such as sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP) are also present which are responsible for cholesterol breakdown and synthesis of lipids. In the humans, SREBP-1, SREBP-2 and their subtypes are present. SREBP-1 is involved in lipid biosynthesis whereas SREBP-2 is present for cholesterol biosynthesis. The SREBPs are located in the endoplasmic reticulum. Lipids are an important part of the human diet. The overuse of lipids leads to various medical conditions such as heart diseases. To overcome these diseases, the food industry has started production of fat-free foods which are basically fat substitute foods such as fat substitutes that are carbohydrate based, fat substitutes that are protein based substitutes and fat based substitutes themselves. Carbohydrate-based fat substitutes are compounds such as starches, cellulose, dextrins and gums. These substitutes provide the same bulk and moistness but they cannot replace the amount of calories actual lipids generate. Carbohydrate-based fat substitutes are easier to digest than fat-based substitutes. Being a dietician, this knowledge would be of significance in deciding the correct diet plan for different individuals. For example, the substituted food products can be advised to people who are at risk of developing diseases such as heart diseases. Fat-substitute compounds are also presen t in the market which create confusion. People willing to lose weight purchase these fat substitutes thinking their consumption would help them lose weight. Being a dietician it is important to tell people that the substituted fat foods have the same number of calories as actual lipids do. Olean, Salatrim and Caprenin are common substituted fat products which are all non-digestible. Olean has unwanted side effects

Sunlife Insurance Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Sunlife Insurance - Case Study Example The firm had decided to diversify into other businesses at a time when it was facing very stiff competition from new entrants into the insurance business. The company responded so well to the pressures of diversification through moving into the businesses that were contiguous to its traditional insurance base. These businesses included residential mortgages, mutual funds, as well as personal trust services. Through these businesses, the sales agents were able to push the other services of the company, much to the benefit of the company. The mutual funds business was able to generate profits at a time when other companies were recording losses and therefore diversification into the line of business and relying on the sales agents was a good decision (Sun Life Financial, 2012). By getting into the other lines of businesses like consumer banking, the firm was able to attract other customers through its other businesses like the consumer banking where the agents were referring the custom ers at the bank to buy mortgages and the other services offered by the firm.   Its partnership with Century 21 Real Estate enabled it to get to sell mortgage packs to the customers referred to it by the real estate firm into which it bought some stake sometime earlier. The agency system the company had invested in enable the firm to achieve very broad coverage that it would not have been able to have it gone for the brokerage system used by other firms. All in all, the decision to diversify into the other lines of business favored it.

Lipids Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Lipids - Essay Example There are 3 subtypes of PPARs which bind to the promoter region of genes and induce fat metabolism. PPARs are located in the liver, heart and kidneys. Non-nuclear receptors such as sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP) are also present which are responsible for cholesterol breakdown and synthesis of lipids. In the humans, SREBP-1, SREBP-2 and their subtypes are present. SREBP-1 is involved in lipid biosynthesis whereas SREBP-2 is present for cholesterol biosynthesis. The SREBPs are located in the endoplasmic reticulum. Lipids are an important part of the human diet. The overuse of lipids leads to various medical conditions such as heart diseases. To overcome these diseases, the food industry has started production of fat-free foods which are basically fat substitute foods such as fat substitutes that are carbohydrate based, fat substitutes that are protein based substitutes and fat based substitutes themselves. Carbohydrate-based fat substitutes are compounds such as starches, cellulose, dextrins and gums. These substitutes provide the same bulk and moistness but they cannot replace the amount of calories actual lipids generate. Carbohydrate-based fat substitutes are easier to digest than fat-based substitutes. Being a dietician, this knowledge would be of significance in deciding the correct diet plan for different individuals. For example, the substituted food products can be advised to people who are at risk of developing diseases such as heart diseases. Fat-substitute compounds are also presen t in the market which create confusion. People willing to lose weight purchase these fat substitutes thinking their consumption would help them lose weight. Being a dietician it is important to tell people that the substituted fat foods have the same number of calories as actual lipids do. Olean, Salatrim and Caprenin are common substituted fat products which are all non-digestible. Olean has unwanted side effects

MENU COMPARISON ASSIGNMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

MENU COMPARISON ASSIGNMENT - Essay Example The food items that may be conventionally prepared are seafood, entrà ©e foods, salads, soup, vegetarian meals, pasta, pizzas, sandwiches, and specialties. The food items that may be convenience are appetizers and risottos because they are mostly ordered as per the customers’ requests as additional accompaniments to the main course meals. The Villa Blanca Restaurant is a tad more expensive than the Quartino Restaurant. For instance, the cheapest salad at Villa Blanca is the char-grilled chicken salad at 15 dollars while the most expensive salad at Quartino is the Tuscan kale salad at only 9 dollars. The purchasing system of chicken is 4.5 dollars per pound at the store, which is more expensive than kale at 2 dollars at the groceries in market value, which creates the cost difference. Similarly, the most expensive pasta meal at Quartino is the linguine with clams at 12.50 dollars. The ingredients include clams with pinot grigio wine, red chili, and extra virgin olive oil, with red or white sauce. The most costly pasta meal at Villa Blanca is the penne and tiger prawns at 24 dollars. The ingredients are tiger prawns with peppery tomatoes, basil, garlic, and ground red pepper. The linguine costs 24 dollars per 12-ounce packet and clams cost 5.99 dollars per pound, while the penne costs 12 dollars per 16-ounce packet and tiger prawns costs 14 dollars per 500g packet, hence the differing contribution margins of prices from the two

Bruno - Boy in the Striped Pajamas Essay Example for Free

Bruno Boy in the Striped Pajamas Essay TALKATIVE Bruno is portrayed as talkative in the novel The Boy in the Striped Pajamas because when he went exploring he found a boy, named Shmuel on the other side of the fence he was not afraid to not only talk to him but, to have a bit of a conversation with Shmuel, although he had never met this boy before. Here is some of the conversation the two young boys carried on the first time they had met: â€Å"Hello,† said Bruno. â€Å"Hello,† said the boy. â€Å"I’ve been exploring,† he said. â€Å"Have you?† said the little boy. â€Å"Yes. For almost two hours now.† â€Å"Have you found anything?† asked the boy. â€Å"Very little.† â€Å"Nothing at all?† â€Å"Well, I found you,† said Bruno after a moment (page 106-107). CREATIVE Bruno is described as creative in this novel because when he let it slip to his sister that because of the rain he hadn’t been able to go and see Shmuel for a few days he was quickly able to make up an excuse that Shmuel was his imaginative friend: â€Å"I have a new friend,† he began. â€Å"A new friend that I go see everyday. And he’ll be waiting for me by now. But you cant tell anyone.† â€Å"Why Not?† â€Å"Because he’s an imaginary friend,† said Bruno trying his best to look embarrassed, just like Lieutenant Kotler had when he had became trapped in his story about his father in Switzerland. â€Å"We play together everyday† (page 155) CURIOUS In this novel Bruno is showed as curious because he loves to explore even though it is off limits at the new house, ‘Out-With’, Here is an example of a time when Bruno went exploring: ‘Before heading of in that direction, though, there was one final thing to investigate and that was the bench. All of these months he’d been looking at it and staring at the plaque from a distance and calling it ‘the bench with the plaque’, but he still had no idea what it said. Looking left and right to make sure that no one was coming, he ran over to it and squinted as he read the words. It was only a small bronze plaque and Bruno read it quietly to himself. ‘Presented on the occasion of the opening of†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He hesitated. ‘Out-With Camp,’ he continued, stumbling over the name as usual. ‘June nineteen forty’ (page102). CARING Bruno is defined as caring throughout the book because he doesn’t recognize the various barriers presented, between him and Shmuel, Bruno is also very caring as he treats Shmuel as an equal unlike the soilder’s and many people around him. ‘Perhaps you can come to dinner with us one evening,’ said Bruno, although he wasn’t sure it was a very good idea. ‘Perhaps,’ said Shmuel, although he didn’t sound convinced. ‘Or I could come to you,’ said Bruno. ‘Perhaps I could come and meet your friends,’ he added hopefully (page 132). This specific reference from the novel shows two different barriers between Shmuel and Bruno, one being the fence between them and the other being the families when they go to supper together.

What Are Presidentialism And Parliamentarism Concepts Politics Essay

What Are Presidentialism And Parliamentarism Concepts Politics Essay Different countries in the world have got their own political system in order to have their countries run and organized and most of them belong to two major systems, namely presidential and parliamentary system and with their own unique characteristics. The presidential and parliamentary systems have lots of different characteristics in their nature and practical running, and each of them have their own virtues and vices. Facing the change of the world political situation and the new democracies, they have got their own advantages to the development of the new democracies; however, there is no universal answer for all the countries in world of which system is more suitable for their new democracies. For presidentialism, it is a system which gives the president the most power in the ruling of the country.((((Find sources / define))). The president usually centralized the political power and symbolic power in his own hand.(CITATION) For political power, he has got a cabinet who is responsible for him and helping him to make various kinds of decisions in different matters, including both daily routines decisions and some important decisions like declaring wars and appointing the government officials, he has got the highest power in executing the policies in a country. For the symbolic power of the president, he represents a state.(CITE) He would be responsible for most of the external issues, like expressing the stand point and the view of a country towards a specific issue, receiving the foreign ambassadors and visiting the other countries in order to promote the country and establish different kinds of networks, including the strategic and economic ones. Like for the president of the United States, the country which is the representative of the presidentialism, Obama, he has been viewed as the symbol of United States nowadays. He has to represent the United States to attend different international conferences like the G20 Seoul Summit in 2010(Cite) and he has recently visited 4 countries in Asia and India. He has to do these visits in order to promote the States interests and establish links and relationships with other countries. The most significant characteristic of the presidential system is the separation of power. The power of legislative and executive is separated and they are independent from each other. There are different elections for electing the members of the executive and legislative branches respectively and hence the two branches may be controlled by different political parties. The parliamentary system is another major political system accounting for around 30% of all the governments (p.42) in the modern world and the assembly is allowed to remove the government (p.34). The parliamentary system has major characteristics of the fusion of power which the legislative and executive power was hold by the same body. The symbolic and the political power in the parliamentary system is, unlike the presidential system, separated in two separate individuals and the two individuals are usually called the head of state and chief executive and the title is subject to change in different countries.(Cite). The example of head of state in the modern states include the Queen of England, Elizabeth II, the Emperor of Japan, Akihito (cite?) and their function is to symbolize the state and responsible for the external issues like receiving ambassadors and performing many of the ceremonial tasks. Some of the head of state is chosen by succession and the others are usually chosen by a governmental body like the legislature.(Cite) The chief executive is responsible for the other part of the country management, he is the chief of the executive branch, and he is responsible for the policymaking and also the daily operation of the government. The chief executive is usually come from the majority party in the parliament, however when there is not a majority political party, there may be a coalition government governing the state, like in Britain. Not 100% of the democratic form of government is of parliamentary and presidential system. In 2000, around 20% of the government in democratic systems is of mixed system, containing both the characteristics of parliamentary and presidential system.(Cite)(p.43). Both the parliamentary and presidential system has its own virtues and vices and it explain why there are different countries supporting different system based on their situation and their historical background and real needs. However, they do not have absolute virtues and vices, there are only comparatively advantages. The first virtue of the parliamentary system is the enforceability of its promises to their supporters and citizens. The parliamentary government has a structural advantage hence it could pass its decision more quickly. As mentioned above, the executive cabinet was chosen within the parliament and it is usually dominated by a majority party. Hence, whenever the government proposes some new policies, the legislators which most of them are in the same party or same line with the government will support and vote for the policies, the policies proposed by the parliamentary government would have a much higher chance and less resistance to be executed. (cite?) However, the parliamentary system has a vice which is also because of its structure. Since the government is elected and chosen by the parliament, the power of parliament is strong enough to turn over the government. The parliamentary system offers no job security (cite). The chief executive will lose his position if the policies he proposed is not favored by the legislators, hence, the policies made by the parliamentary government would be more conservative if there is not an absolute majority party. Also, the quality of the policies does not have promise since they are less challenged and discussed by the legislators. The fast pace of making decision cannot ensure the quality of the decisions made. On the other hand, the presidential system has also got its own virtues and vices. The virtue of the presidential system is that there is separation of powers and hence the legislative branch would be able to check the power and the acts by the executive branch. Hence, there will be less chance for the executive branch to carry out policies which do not get public consensus and high popularity. The legislative branch can act as a defendant of the public when the government exercises unreasonable policies. The discussion and challenges from the legislature would also bring more opinion and thoughts to the government and higher quality and more rounded policies can be made. Secondly, the presidential system ensure the stability of the executive branch since the two branches are separated and independent to each other, hence, the legislature cannot dissolve the cabinet as in the parliamentary system. Both the legislators and president have fixed term and this encourages them to plan for longer terms of policies since there is certainty. However, there are also vices for the presidential system which is because of its characteristics of having check and balance. The check and balance can achieve better policies; on the other hand, it takes much more time to pass. Since the challenges and discussion in the legislature usually takes a long time. Moreover, since there are different elections for electing the legislators and the cabinet, there may not be a party able to control both branches. Hence, it will be difficult for policies to be passed in the legislature if there are not enough allies. This also hindered the development of the country to a certain extent which the discussion will slow down the pass of some urgent policies. The virtues and vices of both of the political systems are not absolute and they may change over different time and different situation. Under the globalization process and the influence of countries among each other, there are now new democracies emerging in the world politics and they often face the dilemma of choosing a right political system. The parliamentary system will be more suitable for the new democracies because of the following points. Firstly, the newly developed democratic countries would usually have a common characteristic which there would be a variety of interests in the public. For example, there may be a lot of different clans or races, different opinions over how should the government implement its economic and public policies. The parliamentary system would be more suitable in this situation since there will be more voices able to speak for their own interest in the parliament and also the government which is elected from the parliament. The members in the parliament who share the executive power may have different backgrounds and hence would be able to reflect their supporters opinion. The prime minister would not be able to bias for his own interest since he will be put off if he does not content the legislature especially when there is not a dominant party. More different voices can appear in the political system in parliamentary system. Secondly, the executive branch in the parliamentary system is elected and chosen by the legislators and they gain certain extent of support from the legislators, in the new democratic countries, the prime minister and the legislators may have promised the voters and supports a lot in order to gain their support and also to strengthen the newly developed countries. Through the parliamentary system and its characteristics, the promises made by the politicians in the campaign can be easier realized since the policies proposed by the prime minister will get support from the legislators who have certain extent of consensus with the government. The system can also ensure the prime minister to carry out his promises since the parliament was given enough power to dissolve the cabinet; hence the prime minister will act according to his promise or in the legislators favor in order to gain support. Moreover, the new democratic countries are usually underdeveloped or developing countries like countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Eastern Europe. These countries, other than developing a new democratic society in their land, also have to develop their economic and diplomatic strength in order to occupy a place in todays world. Under these circumstances, these countries need a strong and efficient government to lead the people and also the country to catch up the developed countries in the world. In terms of efficiency, the parliamentary system will be much better than the presidential system. The law making and policy making process would be much smoother and shorter in time since there are much larger consensus between the legislative branch and the executive cabinet than that in the presidential system, which has to go through a long period of debate and challenges. Now in the parliamentary system, the good relationship between the two branches enable the government to p ass some urgent policies which may be crucial for the countrys development and can be more flexible in policy and law making in order to cope with this fast-changing world. Lastly a small but practical point, the parliamentary system requires fewer resources in holding elections. As mentioned above, the new democratic countries are usually developing countries which are limited in money and other resources like professionals for conducting and monitoring the elections. There is usually only one election for electing the parliamentary members and hence the members would form a government. It requires fewer resources when compared with the presidential system which usually requires two elections for electing the legislative and executive branch respectively. The resources saved can be used for developing the country in other aspects and they are important for a developing country. The parliamentary suits the new democracies more in a general situation like in the situation mentioned above. However, different countries have their own situation and other factors affecting which political system is better for themselves, like the historical background and the existence of monarchy and the influence of the major political figure. There is no universal answer for all countries in the world in which the presidential system could also be efficient; it all depends on the different situation and characteristics of the country and its people. It is a must to closely examine the countrys background in order to decide which political system is better for it and would help its democratic development in the future.

My Philosophy of Education Essays -- Education Educating Teaching Essa

My Philosophy of Education Education is a major component of our society. Each culture has its own traditions on education, and there are many different philosophies on education. There are so many people that are involved in the educational system, and I feel that it is important to express my own philosophy on education. Of course, one purpose of education is to help to develop children emotionally. In the educational setting students learn manners, how to respect their peers and their elders. In fact, I feel that this is one of the more important purposes of the schools. Children learn how to interact with other students, and teachers. Especially in the early years, students are taught to be honest, and to share. While these are lessons that might also be taught at home, it is important to reinforce proper behavior at schools. Similarly, the educational system also teaches basic skills that will be necessary in life. These lessons aren’t always taught in classes or planned in lessons, however, certain things, like time management is taught through school. Students are required to balance their life, with homework, sports practices, clubs, friends and family. This is an important skill that the educational system helps to develop. Clearly another purpose of schools is to teach students different subject areas. The purpose of education is to expand your knowledge, and your world. I believe that the pu...

Frankenstein Today :: essays research papers fc

Is the Technology of Today Ready to Create Mary Shelley’s â€Å"Frankenstein†? When the novel â€Å"Frankenstein†, by Mary Shelley came out in 1831 the general public was introduced to the idea of man creating another man, scientifically without the use of reproduction. The disasters that followed, in the novel, demonstrated the horrid fact that creating humans was not natural. That was in 1831, when the knowledge of science had not yet evolved enough to act on such an idea. Now as the start of a new millenium approaches, having the capability to scientifically produce one human who is genetically identical to another, or cloning a human, has a lot of people questioning weather or not it is our moral right to do such a thing. It is a classic debate between principles of science and principles of religion.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The more we know about genetics and the building blocks of life the closer we get to being capable of cloning a human. The study of chromosomes and DNA strains has been going on for years. In 1990, the Unites States Government founded the Human Genome Project (HGP). This program was to research and study the estimated 80,000 human genes and determine the sequences of 3 billion DNA molecules. Knowing and being able to examine each sequence could change how humans respond to diseases, viruses, and toxins common to everyday life. With the technology of today the HGP expects to have a blueprint of all human DNA sequences by the spring of 2000. This accomplishment, even though not cloning, presents other new issues for individuals and society. For this reason the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) was brought in to identify and address these issues. They operate to secure the individuals rights to those who contribute DNA samples for studies. The ELSI, bein g the biggest bioethics program, has to decide on important factors when an individual’s personal DNA is calculated. Such factors would include; who would have access to the information, who controls and protects the information and when to use it? Along with these concerns, the ESLI tries to prepare for the estimated impacts that genetic advances could be responsible for in the near future. The availability of such information is becoming to broad and one needs to be concerned where society is going with it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The next step after scientists have identified and studied adult DNA would be to copy it.

A Book Review: “Marley and Me” by John Grogan

â€Å"Marley and Me† by John Grogan it’s a â€Å"touchingly, beautiful story about one of the world's worst behaved dogs† like readers say. It’s based on a real, exciting adventure in Grogan family – having a dog. It is published by Wydawnictwo Pierwsze in 2006. The book is set nowadays in the USA and it’s written in unusual style. The main character are: Marley – the dog, and his owner who is also a narrator and a writer of this book. John Grogan is writing about his part of live when he used to live with Marley. The story starts a few months before he take Marley home and ends after Marley’s death. Grogan is writing about many private moments from his family life which are usually very funny but sometimes also pathetic. John Grogan is a journalist. He has a beautiful wife and a small house in South Florida. They have a ordinary, perfect life until they brought home Marley. Their life would never be the same. There is a lot of good thing in this book. The most important thing is the language which it’s written – it’s easy and funny. The humour and all unexpected situations are main advantages of the book. In The Birmingham News is writing: â€Å"You'll understand the gift that Marley was to this family†¦ Grogan has crafted a loving but unsentimental memory of his dog and what he meant to him, his wife and his children. And that's his gift to us. † I completely agree with it. The book is certainly worth reading. It’s shows real emotions and a special relationship with the dog and his owner. Marley learn us how to catch every day, how to love and how to be happy. You should understand that gift.

Strategic Hrm

Cornell University ILR School [email  protected] CAHRS Working Paper Series Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS) 4-1-2006 Strategic Management and HRM Mathew R. Allen Patrick M. Wright Cornell University Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrswp This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS) at [email  protected] It has been accepted for inclusion in CAHRS Working Paper Series by an authorized administrator of [email  protected]For more information, please contact [email  protected] edu. Strategic Management and HRM Abstract [Excerpt] The purpose of this chapter is to discuss this intersection between Strategic Management and HRM, what we know, and future directions for SHRM research. We will begin by briefly discussing the concept of strategy and the popularization of the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm. Next we will address its role in creating the link between HRM and Strategic Management including key questions that the RBV has raised in relation to SHRM.We will then examine the current state of affairs in SHRM; the progress made, and key questions and concerns occupying the attention of SHRM researchers. Finally, we will conclude with our views on future directions for SHRM research. Keywords CAHRS, ILR, center, human resource, studies, advanced, link, information technology, business partner, strategic role, competencies, HR, HRM, HR professionals, management Comments Suggested Citation Allen, M. R. & Wright, P. M. (2006). Strategic management and HRM (CAHRS Working Paper #06-04).Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies. http://digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrswp/404/ This article is available at [email  protected]: http://digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrswp/404 CAHRS at Cornell University 187 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853-3901 USA T el. 607 255-9358 www. ilr. cornell. edu/CAHRS WORKING PAPER SERIES Strategic Management and HRM Mathew R. Allen Patrick M. Wright Working Paper 06 – 04 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04Strategic Management and HRM Mathew R. Allen Patrick M. Wright Department of Human Resource Studies School of Industrial and Labor Relations Cornell University Ithaca, NY 14853-3901 April 2006 http://www. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrs This paper has not undergone formal review or approval of the faculty of the ILR School. It is intended to make results of Center research available to others interested in preliminary form to encourage discussion and suggestions. Most (if not all) of the CAHRS Working Papers are available for reading at the Catherwood Library.For information on what’s available link to the Cornell Library Catalog: http://catalog. library. cornell. edu if you wish. Page 2 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 Abstract Page 3 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 Strategic Management and HRM Introduction It has been said that the most important assets of any business walk out the door at the end of each day. Indeed, people and the management of people are increasingly seen as key elements of competitive advantage (Boxall & Purcell, 2003; Pfeffer, 1998; Gratton, Hailey & Truss, 2000).Spurred on by increasing competition, fast paced technological change, globalization and other factors, businesses are seeking to understand how one of the last truly competitive resources, their human resources, can be managed for competitive advantage. This idea that the human resources of a firm can play a strategic role in the success of an organization has led to the formation of a field of research often referred to as strategic human resource management (SHRM).This relatively young field represents an intersection of the strategic management and human resource management (HRM) literatures (Boxall, 1998; Boxall and Purcell, 2000). Wright and M cMahan (1992) defined strategic human resource management as â€Å"the pattern of planned human resource deployments and activities intended to enable the firm to achieve its goals† (1992, p. 298). The purpose of this chapter is to discuss this intersection between Strategic Management and HRM, what we know, and future directions for SHRM research.We will begin by briefly discussing the concept of strategy and the popularization of the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm. Next we will address its role in creating the link between HRM and Strategic Management including key questions that the RBV has raised in relation to SHRM. We will then examine the current state of affairs in SHRM; the progress made, and key questions and concerns occupying the attention of SHRM researchers. Finally, we will conclude with our views on future directions for SHRM research. Strategy And The Resource-Based View Of The FirmThe field of strategy focuses on how firms can position themselves to c ompete, and its popularity began increasing exponentially in the mid 1980s with two books. First, Peters & Page 4 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 Waterman’s (1982) In Search of Excellence provided a practitioner-oriented analysis of excellent companies and the common threads that united them. However, Porter’s (1980) Competitive Strategy presented a more academically based analysis of strategy, but in a way that practitioners/executives quickly gravitated toward.This Industrial/Organization Economicsbased analysis primarily focused on industry characteristics, in particular the five forces of barriers to entry, power of buyers, power of suppliers, substitutes, and competitive rivalry as the determinants of industry profitability. While this analysis did propose four generic strategies (cost, differentiation, focus, and ‘stuck in the middle’), the bulk of the analysis focused on external factors that determined company profitability. This f ramework seemed to dominate strategic management thinking of the early 1980s.However, with the advent of the resource-based view of the firm (Barney, 1991; Wernerfelt, 1980), strategic management research moved to a more internal focus. Rather than simply developing competitive strategies to address the environment, the resource-based view suggested that firms should look inward to their resources, both physical and intellectual, for sources of competitive advantage. Though others had addressed the concept of the RBV previously, Barney (1991) specifically explicated how firm resources contribute to the sustained competitive advantage of the firm.He suggested that resources that are valuable, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable will lead to competitive advantage. Value in this context is defined as resources either exploiting opportunities or neutralizing threats to the organization and rarity is defined as being a resource that is not currently available to a large number of the organization’s current or future competitors (Barney, 1991). Inimitability refers to the fact it is difficult for other firms to copy or otherwise reproduce the resources for their own use.Finally, non-substitutability means that other resources cannot be used by competitors in order to replicate the benefit (Barney 1991). When all four of these conditions are met, it is said that the firm or organization possess resources which can potentially lead to a sustained competitive advantage over time. Page 5 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 The resource-based view has become almost the assumed paradigm within strategic management research (Barney and Wright, 2001).It has been the basic theoretical foundation from which much of the current strategic management research regarding knowledge-based views of the firm (Grant, 1996), human capital (Hitt et al. , 2001), and dynamic capabilities (Teece, Pisano, & Schuen, 1997) are derived. In fact, Priem and Butler (2001) ma pped RBV studies against eighteen strategy research topics, demonstrating the breadth of its diffusion within the strategic management domain.More importantly from the standpoint of this chapter, the resource-based view has become the guiding paradigm on which virtually all strategic HRM research is based (Wright, Dunford, & Snell, 2001). In spite of the wide acceptance of the RBV, it is not without criticism. Priem and Butler, (2001a, b) have leveled the most cogent critique to date suggesting that the RBV does not truly constitute a theory. Their argument focuses primarily on two basic issues. First, they suggest that the RBV is basically tautological in its definition of key constructs.They note that Barney’s statement that â€Å"if a firm’s valuable resources are absolutely unique among a set of competing and potentially competing firms, those resources will generate at least a competitive advantage (Barney, 2001: 102)† essentially requires definitional depe ndence. In other words, without definitional dependence (i. e. â€Å"valuable resources†) the diametrical statement – that unique firms possess competitive advantages – does not logically follow. Their second major criticism of the RBV as a â€Å"theory† focuses on the inability to test it (Priem & Butler, 2001b). They note he necessity condition of â€Å"falsifiability† for a theory. In other words, in order for a set of stated relationships to constitute a theory, the relationships must be able to be measured and tested in a way that allows for the theory to be found to be false. This relates directly to the tautology criticism, but brings the debate into the empirical realm. In spite of these criticisms, even the critics agree that the impact of the RBV on strategic management research has been significant and that the effort to focus on the internal aspects of the organization in explaining competitive advantage has been a useful one (Preim & B utler,Page 6 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 2001b). While the debate might continue as to the theoretical implications of the RBV for strategic management research, it is clear that it has made a significant contribution to Strategic Management and, more specifically, SHRM research (Wright, Dunford & Snell, 2001). A Brief History Of Strategic HRM Wright and McMahan’s (1992) definition of strategic human resource management illustrates that the major focus of the field should be on aligning HR with firm strategies.Jim Walker’s (1980) classic book, Human Resource Planning, was one of the first to directly suggest considering a firm’s business strategy when developing a human resource plan. Devanna, Fombrum, and Tichy’s (1981) article, â€Å"Human Resources Management: a Strategic Perspective†, added to the foundation. These attempts tended to take an existing strategy typology (e. g. Miles and Snow’s (1978) prospectors, analy zers and defenders) and delineate the kinds of HRM practices that should be associated with each strategy. These attempts to tie HRM to strategy have been referred to as â€Å"vertical alignment† (Wright & McMahan, 1992).Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Mills and Walton (1984) introduced an alternative to the individual HR sub-function framework for HR strategy. They argued that viewing HRM as separate HR sub-functions was a product of the historical development of HRM and current views of HR departments. They proposed a more generalist approach to viewing HRM with the focus on the entire HR system rather than single HR practices. This led to a focus on how the different HR sub-functions could be aligned and work together to accomplish the goals of HRM and a more macro view of HRM as whole rather than individual functions.This alignment of HR functions with each other is often referred to as â€Å"horizontal alignment† (see this Handbook, chapter 19. ) The combination of both vertical and horizontal alignment was a significant step in explaining how HRM could contribute to the accomplishment of strategic goals. However, given the external focus of the strategic management literature at that time, HR was seen to play only a secondary role in the accomplishment of strategy with an emphasis on the role that HRM Page 7 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 layed in strategy implementation, but not strategy formulation. Lengnick-Hall and LengnickHall (1988) stated â€Å"strategic human resource management models emphasize implementation over strategy formulation. Human resources are considered means, not part of generating or selecting strategic objectives. Rarely are human resources seen as a strategic capacity from which competitive choices should be derived† (1988, p. 456). A shift in strategic management thinking would be required to change that perception and open the door for further development of the SHRM literature.The diffusion of the resource-based view into the Strategic HRM literature spurred this paradigmatic shift in the view of the link between strategy and HRM. Because the resourcebased view proposes that firm competitive advantage comes from the internal resources that it possesses (Wernerfelt, 1984; Barney, 1991), the RBV provided a legitimate foundation upon which HRM researchers could argue that people and the human resources of a firm could in fact contribute to firm-level performance and influence strategy formulation.This resulted in a number of efforts to conceptually or theoretically tie strategic HRM to the resource-based view. For instance, Wright, McMahan, and McWilliams (1994) suggested that while HR practices might be easily imitated, the human capital pool of an organization might constitute a source of sustainable competitive advantage. Lado and Wilson (1994) argued that HR practices combined into an overall HR system can be valuable, unique, and difficult to imitate, thus constituting a resource meeting the conditions necessary for sustained competitive advantage.Boxall (1996, 1998) proposed a distinction between human resource advantage (advantage stemming from a superior human capital pool) and organizational process advantage (advantage stemming from superior processes for managing human capital). The resource-based view also provided the theoretical rationale for empirical studies of how HR practices might impact firm success. One of the early empirical studies of this relationship was carried out by Arthur (1994). Using a sample of steel mini-mills, he found that a specific set of HR practices was significantly related to firm performance in the form of lower Page 8 of 26Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 scrap rates and lower turnover. Huselid (1995), in his landmark study, demonstrated that the use of a set of 13 HRM practices representing a ‘high-performance work system’ was significantly and positively related to lower turnover, and higher profits, sales, and market value for the firms studied. In a similar study, MacDuffie (1995), using data from automobile manufacturing plants, demonstrated that different bundles of HR practices led to higher performance, furthering the argument that the integrated HR system, rather than individual HR practices, leads to higher performance.Delery and Doty (1996) similarly demonstrated the impact of HR practices on firm performance among a sample of banks. This vein of research quickly expanded in the U. S. (e. g. , Batt, 1999; Huselid, Jackson, & Schuler, 1996; Youndt, Snell, Dean, & Lepak,, 1996), the U. K. (e. g. , Brewster, 1999; Guest, 1997; Guest, Michie, Conway, & Sheehan, 2003; Tyson, 1997), elsewhere in Europe (e. g. , d’Arcimoles, 1997; Lahteenmaki, Story, & Vanhala, 1998; Rodriguez & Ventura, 2003) and Asia (e. g. Bae & Lawler, 2000; Lee & Chee, 1996; Lee & Miller, 1999), as well as in multinational corporations operating in multiple international environment s (Brewster, Sparrow, and Harris, 2000). In sum, the RBV, with its focus on the internal resources possessed by a firm, has given the field a theoretical understanding of why human resources systems might lead to sustainable competitive advantage and provided the spark to generate empirical research in this vein (Guest, 2001; Paauwe & Boselie, 2005; , Wright et al, 2005). Key Questions Raised By The Application Of RBV To SHRMIn spite of the significant amount of research demonstrating a link between HRM practices and firm performance, there are several key questions regarding the RBV and its implications for SHRM research that remain unanswered. First, there is some question as to whether current research on HRM and performance is truly testing the RBV. Second, there is still a general lack of understanding around the concept of fit, and its role in the link between strategy and HRM. Third, there are still unanswered questions regarding HRM and whether orPage 9 of 26 Strategic Manag ement and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 not HRM defined as systems of HR practices truly constitutes a resource under the conditions outlined by Barney (1991) and, specifically, whether those resources are truly sustainable over time. Finally, there are several measurement and methodological issues that, while not within the direct scope of this chapter, are worth mentioning as they are pertinent to our discussion of this intersection between Strategic Management and HRM research. Testing of the RBV within SHRMWhile the SHRM research just discussed has used the RBV as a basis for the assertion that HRM contributes to performance, it has not actually tested the theory that was presented in Barney’s (1991) article (Wright, Dunford & Snell, 2001). Most of this research has taken a similar view on how HR practices can lead to firm performance. The model generally argues that HRM in the form of HR practices directly impacts the employees either by increasing human capital or motivation or bot h. This in turn will have an impact on operational outcomes such as quality, customer service, turnover or other operational level outcomes.These operational outcomes will in turn impact firm-level outcomes such as financial performance in the form of revenues, profits or other firm-level measures of performance (Dyer, 1984). In a similar vein, Wright Dunford and Snell, (2001) point out that there are three important components of HRM that constitute a resource for the firm that are influenced by the HR practices or HR system. First, there is the human capital pool comprised of the stock of employee knowledge, skills, motivation and behaviors.HR practices can help build the knowledge and skill base as well as elicit relevant behavior. Second, there is the flow of human capital through the firm. This reflects the movement of people (with their individual knowledge, skills and abilities) as well as knowledge itself. HR practices can certainly influence the movement of people. However, more importantly, the types of reward systems, culture, and other aspects of HRM influence the extent to which employees are willing to create, share, and apply knowledge internally. Page 10 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04Third, the dynamic processes through which organizations change and/or renew themselves constitute the third area illustrating the link between HRM and the resource-based view of the firm. HR practices are the primary levers through which the firm can change the pool of human capital as well as attempt to change the employee behaviors that lead to organizational success. There appears to be a general consensus among SHRM researchers around the general model of the HR to performance relationship and the role of HR practices, the human capital pool, and employee motivation and behaviors as discussed by Dyer (1984) and others.The implications of this for RBV and SHRM research is that while separate components of the full HRM to performance model have been tested such as HR practices (Huselid, 1995; McDuffie, 1995) and human capital (Richard, 2001; Wright, McMahan & Smart, 1995), a full test of the causal model through which HRM impacts performance has not (Wright, Gardner, Moynihan, & Allen, 2005; Wright, Dunford & Snell, 2001; Boxall, 1998). Current research has established an empirical relationship between HR practices and firm performance, but more remains to be done.By testing the full model, including the additional components of the human capital pool and employee relationships and behaviors, a more complete test of the underlying assumptions of the RBV could be established, thus adding credibility to the theoretical model of the relationship between HRM and performance. Fit and the Resource-based View of the Firm In the Priem and Butler (2001) critique of the RBV, one of the points brought up as a theoretical weakness of the RBV is lack of definition around the boundaries or contexts in which it will hold.They point out that â€Å"relative to other strategy theories †¦ little effort to establish the appropriate contexts for the RBV has been apparent† (2001 p. 32). The notion of context has been an important issue in the study of SHRM (Delery & Doty, 1996, Boxall & Purcell, 2000). Most often referred to as contingencies (or the idea of fit), contextual arguments center on the Page 11 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 idea that the role that HRM plays in firm performance is contingent on some other variable.We break our discussion of fit into the role of human capital and HR practices. Human Capital and Fit. The most often cited perspective for explaining contingency relationships in SHRM is the behavioral perspective (Jackson, Schuler & Rivero, 1989) which posits that different firm strategies (other contingencies could be inserted as well) require different kinds of behaviors from employees. Consequently, the success of these strategies is dependent at least in part on th e ability of the firm to elicit these behaviors from its employees (Cappelli & Singh, 1992; Wright & Snell, 1998).Going back to the distinction between human capital skills and employee behavior, Wright and Snell (1999) noted that skills and abilities tend to be necessary, but not sufficient conditions for employee behavior. Consequently, any fit to firm strategy must first consider the kinds of employee behavior (e. g. , experimentation and discovery) required to successfully execute the strategy (e. g. , focused on offering innovative products), and the kinds of skills necessary to exhibit those behaviors (e. g. , scientific knowledge).Obviously, the workforce at Nordstrom’s (an upscale retailer) is quite different from the workforce at Wal-Mart (a discount retailer). Thus, the resource-based application to SHRM requires focusing on a fit between the skills and behaviors of employees that are best suited to the firm’s strategy (Wright et al. 1995). While this idea of fit focuses on across-firm variance in the workforce, Lepak and Snell (1999) developed a framework that simultaneously addresses variation across firms and variations in HR systems within firms (see this Handbook, chapter 11).Their model of ‘human resource architecture’ posits that the skills of individuals or jobs within a firm can be placed along two dimensions: value (to the firm’s strategy) and uniqueness. Their framework demonstrates how different jobs within firms may need to be managed differently, but it also helps to explain differences across firms. For instance, within Wal-Mart, those in charge of logistics have extremely valuable and unique skills, much more so than the average sales Page 12 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 associate.On the other hand, at Nordstrom’s, because customer service is important, sales associate skills are more critical to the strategy than those of the logistics employees. HR Practices and Fit. The t heoretical assumption that the skills and behaviors of employees must fit the strategic needs of the firm in order for the workforce to be a source of competitive advantage leads to the exploration of how HR practices might also need to achieve some form of fit. With regard to vertical fit, as noted previously, business strategies require different skills and behaviors from employees.Because HR practices are generally the levers through which the firm manages these different skills and behaviors, one would expect to see different practices associated with different strategies. For instance, one would expect that firms focused on low cost might not pay the same level of wages and benefits as firms focused on innovation or customer service. Horizontal fit refers to a fit between HR practices to ensure that the individual HR practices are set up in such a way that they support each other (Boxall & Purcell, 2003; Baird & Meshoulam, 1988, Delery, 1998).An example of this would be a selec tion process that focuses on finding team players and a compensation system that focuses on team-based rewards. Theoretically, the rationale for horizontal fit suggests that (a) complementary bundles of HR practices can be redundantly reinforcing the development of certain skills and behaviors resulting in a higher likelihood that they will occur and (b) conflicting practices can send mixed signals to employees regarding necessary skills and behaviors that reduce the probability that they will be exhibited (Becker & Huselid, 1998).There appears to be some agreement in the literature that both types of fit are necessary for optimal impact of HRM on performance (Baird & Meshoulam, 1988; Delery, 1998; Delery & Doty, 1996; Boxall & Purcell, 2003), but not necessarily empirical support for these types of fit (see this Handbook, chapter 27; Wright & Sherman, 1999). Potential Pitfalls of Fit. The idea of fit, whether it be vertical or horizontal, raises two important questions for SHRM res earchers. The first question focuses on empirical support forPage 13 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 the idea of fit. Second, even if fit has positive consequences in the short term, does fitting HRM practices with strategy or other contingent variables universally lead to positive results? That is, are there negative implications of fit? As previously discussed, numerous researchers have argued for fitting HRM to contingent variables. However, the efficacy of fit has not received much empirical support (Paauwe, 2004; Wright & Sherman, 1999).Huselid’s (1995) landmark study sought to test the fit hypothesis using a variety of conceptualizations of fit, yet found little support. Similarly, Delery and Doty (1996) only found limited support across a number of fit tests. The lack of empirical support may largely be due to focusing only on a fit between generic HRM practices and strategy, rather than the outcomes, or products (Wright, 1998) of the HRM practices (sk ills, behaviors, etc. ). Thus, it seems that it may be too early to draw any definite conclusions about the validity of the fit hypothesis.However, while fit between HRM practices and various contingency variables might enhance the ability of HRM to contribute to firm performance, there is also the possibility that a tight fit between HRM and strategy may inhibit the ability of the firm to remain flexible enough to adapt to changing circumstances. Firms are increasingly required to adapt to environments that are constantly changing, both within and outside the firm. A tight fit may appear to be desirable but during times of transition and/or change a lack of fit might make adaptation and change more efficient (Lengnick-Hall, Lengnick-Hall, 1988).Wright and Snell (1998) developed a framework in which HRM contributes to fit and flexibility simultaneously without conflict between the two, but this framework has yet to be tested and the question remains as to when and where fit might be more or less appropriate. The second question raised by contextual issues surrounding SHRM and the idea of fit is related to the efficacy of fit. Regardless of whether or not fit can have a positive effect on organizational outcomes, there is still some question as to whether or not true fit with key contingencies is feasible.Large organizations operate in complex environments, often across Page 14 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 multiple products, industries and geographies. This complexity leads to questions regarding the ability of the firm to fit HRM practices to all of these diverse and complex circumstances (Boxall & Purcell, 2003). In addition, Boxall and Purcell, (2003) argue that there are competing ideals within a business that require trade-offs in fit.They describe fit as â€Å"a process that involves some tension among competing objectives in management and inevitably implies tensions among competing interests† (2003, p. 188). A simple example o f these tensions can be seen in attempting to fit a strategy of commitment to employees with a hostile or extremely competitive operating environment. A firm with a strategic commitment to the well-being of employees operating in an economic downturn or time of increased competition may be forced to make choices between commitment to employees and a need for estructuring, layoffs or other non-friendly actions toward employees in order to stay solvent. In these situations, compromises will have to be made on either the fit with the strategy or the fit with the environment or both, raising the question again as to whether or not a true fit with contingencies is feasible. These questions regarding the ability to achieve fit and the desirability of achieving fit do not diminish the importance of understanding contextual issues in SHRM research.Understanding the contextual issues surrounding HRM and its impact on performance remains critical. In spite of the interest in the role of conte xtual issues and fit in SHRM, findings in support of contingency relationships have been mixed (Wright & Sherman, 1999). Much of this criticism could be due to ineffective methods used in the measurement of HRM or the contingency and performance variables studied or that the correct contingencies have not yet been studied (Becker & Gerhart, 1996, Rogers & Wright, 1998; Wright & Sherman, 1999).In addition, Boxall and Purcell (2000) have argued that more complex and comprehensive models of contingency relationships are needed in order to understand the impact of context on the HRM to performance relationship. Regardless of the reasoning, it is clear that the impact of context on this important relationship is not yet completely understood and more research is Page 15 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 needed to understand the role of context, as well as questions surrounding models of fit in SHRM research.HRM Practices and Sustainable Competitive Advantage Another issue that has been raised by the RBV and its application to SHRM research is the sustainability of HRM as a competitive advantage. Whether one focuses on bundles of HR practices as an HR system, the human capital pool or employee relationships and behaviors, there remains the question as to whether HRM as a resource meets the inimitability and nonsubstitutability conditions that are required in the RBV for sustained competitive advantage (Barney, 1991).According to Barney (1991), there are three general reasons why firm resources would be difficult to imitate: the resources are created and formed under unique historical conditions, the resources are causally ambiguous, or the resources are socially complex. Labeled as path dependency by Becker and Gerhart (1996), the unique historical conditions under which HRM is formed in individual firms may make its understanding and replication extremely difficult, if not impossible.HR systems are developed over time and the complex history involved in their development makes them difficult to replicate. The development and implementation of a single HR practice such as a variable pay system takes place over time including time to solicit management input and buy-in, work out discrepancies, and align the practice with current strategies as well as firm culture and needs. The end result is a practice that reflects the philosophies and culture of the firm and its management, created to solve the specific needs of the company.Compound that single HR practice with a whole system of practices each with its own history and evolution specific to a particular firm, its philosophies and current situation and you have an HR system that cannot be bought or easily replicated without a significant investment both of time and financial resources. Causal ambiguity implies that the exact manner in which human resource management contributes to the competitive advantage of the firm is either unknown or sufficiently ambiguous Page 16 of 26 Stra tegic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 so as to be difficult or impossible to imitate.According to Becker and Gerhart (1996), the ability to replicate a successful HR system would require an understanding of how all of the elements of this complex system interact and in turn impact the performance of an organization. Given the previous discussion of the basic HRM to performance model and the manner in which it is expected that HRM contributes to firm performance, it is difficult to imagine how the intricate interplay among various HR practices, human capital and employee behaviors, employee outcomes, operational outcomes and firm-level outcomes could be understood by a competitor in a meaningful way.Finally, Barney (1991) points out that competitors will find it difficult to replicate a competitive advantage based on complex social phenomena. Given the nature of HRM and its direct relation to employees, almost every aspect of the HR system, the human capital and especially the emplo yee behavior and relationships has a social component.The way in which HR practices are communicated and implemented among different departments and parts of the organization is influenced by the various social relationships involved; top management to general managers, general managers to department heads or managers and those managers to employees as well as interactions between departments and employees. The complexity of the social relationships in the case of HRM makes it difficult for competitors to imitate it. Finally, for a resource to constitute a source of sustainable competitive advantage it must be non-substitutable.This implies that competitors should not be able to use a different set of resources in order to achieve similar results (Barney, 1991). This concept has not yet been tested, but could provide for interesting research in the area of contextual factors and SHRM. If, in fact, it is found that a particular set of HR practices is positively related to performance in a given context, then, a follow-on question to that which would get at the substitutability question might be whether or not there is another set of HR practices for which the results are similar.This could lead to discussions about strategic configurations of HR Page 17 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 practices rather than universal high-performance work systems that have dominated past research (Delery & Doty, 1996). Regardless of whether there is one or many ways to achieve similar results in different contextual situations, the testing of these possibilities would lead to an increased understanding of the relationship between the RBV and SHRM research and the sustainability of HRM as a strategic resource.Measurement and Methodological Issues In addition to key questions surrounding the RBV and SHRM research, there are also several measurement and methodological issues which have hindered our ability to better understand the relationship between strategy and HRM. Measurement issues relating to the HRM, competitive advantage and key control variables have made the comparison of results across studies and interpretation of findings difficult (Rogers & Wright, 1998; Dyer & Reeves, 1995).In addition, there are questions around the appropriate level of analysis within the firm at which to test these relationships as well as issues related to the mixing of variables measured at different levels of analysis (Rogers & Wright 1998, Becker & Gerhart, 1996). Finally, as was pointed out, the majority of research to date has focused on the relationship between HR systems and firm-level performance and, while the findings indicate a positive relationship, there is insufficient evidence at this point to be able to infer that the relationship is causal (Wright et al. , 2005).A full discussion of these issues is beyond the scope of this chapter and a more thorough discussion may be found in other chapters in this text (see particularly chapters 26 and 2 7), but it is important to note in discussing key questions in SHRM that they exist and need to be addressed or at least considered in future research. Future Directions Research on SHRM management over the past decade has made significant progress in developing our understanding of the role that HRM plays in firm performance. The field now has a significant foundation upon which to build future research.In our opinion, future research should focus on both answering key questions that remain in understanding the relationship Page 18 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 between HRM and performance and by expanding or broadening what is considered SHRM. Such extension would encompass both other resources and other theories currently studied in strategic management research. Key Unanswered Questions The previous portion of the chapter pointed out several key questions that have been raised as a result of the application of the RBV to SHRM research that are not yet answered. First, research that directly tests the concepts outlined in the RBV has not been done (Priem & Butler, 2001). Thus future research should focus on testing the concepts of the RBV by testing the full model through which HRM leads to competitive advantage or firm performance. Do HR practices impact the human capital pool and the relationships and behaviors of the employees and do those outcomes in turn impact both operational and firm-level performance? Answering these questions by testing the full causal model would be a significant contribution to our understanding of the strategic nature of HRM.In essence, this reflects the â€Å"black box process† that Priem and Butler (2001) argued must be addressed by RBV theorists and researchers. Second, future research should focus on understanding the contextual questions surrounding the HRM to performance relationship. Mixed results in past contextual research is not reason enough to abandon the question all together. It is highly l ikely that HRM matters more or less in certain situations or under certain conditions. Efforts should be made to continue to test established models of HRM in new and unique situations.In addition, more thorough tests of moderating variables in the HRM to performance relationship should be tested. Given the complexity involved in the measurement and testing of these relationships and the mixed results of past research in this area it is likely that researchers will need to seek out contexts with reduced complexity such as departments within large organizations or small businesses where reduced complexity will provide more meaningful measures of potential moderating variables and more meaningful tests of the moderating relationships can be performed. Page 19 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04Another step that needs to be taken in understanding the role of context in the HRM to performance relationship is to move away from universal-type models of HRM such as highperform ance work systems and high-involvement work systems and develop and test different configurations of HR practices that might apply to specific situations. In doing this, researchers will be able to better understand the specific bundles or HR practices that are applicable or fit with different types of organizations or situations, thus making a significant contribution to our understanding of the types of HRM that will matter in a given situation.Expanding the Role of SHRM Future research in SHRM should focus on conceptually expanding what is considered to be the role of SHRM. Historically, SHRM has been viewed as the interface between HRM and strategic management (Boxall, 1996) with the focus of much research being on understanding how the HRM function (namely HRM practices) can be strategically aligned so as to contribute directly to competitive advantage.This implies a concern with how HR practices can contribute to strategy implementation without addressing the larger question o f how HRM can contribute or play a role in strategy formulation (Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall, 1988). Wright et. al. (2001) argued that it is the human capital (the knowledge skills and abilities of the human resources) as well as the relationships and motivation of the employees that leads to competitive advantage. The purpose of HR practices is to develop or acquire this human capital and influence the relationships and behaviors of the employees so that they can contribute to the strategic goals of the irm. Future research should examine human capital and the social interactions and motivations of the human element within a firm (Snell, Shadur, & Wright, 2002), not only as independent variables but also as mediating and dependent variables. A focus in this area will bring the field more in line with contemporary views in strategic management. Research in this area will also help us to get beyond questions regarding how HR practices can facilitate the strategic goals of a firm an d begin to understand how organizations can understand the resources found in their human element and use that Page 20 of 26Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 understanding to influence or even drive their decisions about their strategic direction. For instance, IBM’s strong HR processes/competencies led it into the business of offering outsourced HR services. This was an internal resource that was extended into a new product line, and illustrates how an understanding of such resources can influence strategic direction. Along these same lines, another way to break away from this notion of HRM as a facilitator of the strategic direction of the firm is by focusing on some of the resources currently salient to strategic management researchers.In their review of the RBV and SHRM relationship, Wright, Dunford and Snell, (2001) argue that the RBV created a link between HRM and strategic management research and that as a result of this link the two fields were converging. Be cause of this convergence, the potential impact of SHRM research on mainstream strategy issues is tremendous. Increasingly, strategy researchers are focusing on knowledge and knowledge-based resources (Argote, & Ingram, 2000; Grant, 1996;), human capital (Hitt et al. 001), social capital (Inkpen & Tsang, 2005; McFadyen, Ann, & Albert, 2004), capabilities (Dutta, Narasimhan, & Rajiv, 2005), and dynamic capabilities (Teece, Pisano, & Schuen, 1997), as critical resources that lead to organizational success. While HRM practices strongly influence these resources, the SHRM literature seems almost devoid of empirical attention to them. Only recently have researchers began to explore these issues (Kinnie, Swart, & Purcell, 2005; Thompson & Heron, 2005). Additional research in these areas would provide tremendous synergy between HRM and strategy.In addition, alternative theories such as ‘learning organizations’ (Fiol & Lyles, 1985; Fisher & White, 2000), real options theory (Mc Grath, 1997; Trigeorgis, 1996) and institutional theory (Meyer & Rowan, 1977) can be combined with SHRM research to enhance our understanding of the strategic nature of HRM. For instance, Bhattacharya and Wright (2005) showed how real options theory can be applied to understanding flexibility in SHRM. In addition, Paauwe and Boselie (Chapter 9) provide a detailed analysis of how institutional theory can better inform SHRM research. The use of these in addressing questions in SHRM research willPage 21 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 provide new lenses through which researchers are able to view the HRM to performance relationship, potentially providing new insights and ideas that will further our understanding of SHRM. Conclusion While the field of strategic HRM is relatively young, significant progress has been made at a rapid pace. Researchers have provided great theoretical and empirical advancements in a period of just over 25 years. Much of this progress is the r esult of the RBV and its emphasis on the internal resources of the firm as a source of sustainable competitive advantage.The RBV and its application to SHRM research created an important link between strategic management and HRM research. Its application has been followed by a significant amount of research using the RBV as a basis for assertions about the strategic nature of HRM. However, the link between HRM and strategic management can be strengthened by breaking away from the focus on HR practices. Other key resources currently being researched in strategic management have the potential to be directly influenced by HRM, but their coverage by SHRM researchers has been minimal, leaving a tremendous opportunity for future research in this area.In addition to this, new theories relevant to strategic management have yet to be combined with SHRM research, leaving potential for additional contributions to our understanding of the intersection between strategic management and HRM. Page 22 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 References Argote, L. , Ingram, P. , Levine, J. M. , & Moreland, R. L. (2000). Knowledge transfer in organizations: Learning from the experience of others. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 82(1), 1-8. Arthur, J. B. (1994). Effects of human resource systems on manufacturing performance and turnover.Academy of Management Journal, 37(3), 670. Bae, J. , & Lawler, J. J. (2000). 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